Japan’s Lost Histories

Yamato Takeru: Japan’s Legendary First Hero Long before Japan’s history was recorded in the form familiar today, stories of warriors, rulers and supernatural beings were passed down through generations. Among the most enduring is the story of Yamato Takeru, a prince whose adventures became one of the great heroic cycles of ancient Japan. His story appears principally in the Kojiki, compiled in 712, and the Nihon Shoki, completed in 720. Both works combine accounts of the past with mythology, making Yamato Takeru difficult to separate from the legends that grew around him. The traditional chronicles describe Yamato Takeru as the son of Emperor Keiko. His name is generally translated as something close to “Brave of Yamato” or “Valiant Warrior of Yamato.” He is presented as a powerful military figure who travels across regions that were not yet fully incorporated into the authority of the Yamato court. Yet his story is not simply one of military victories. It is also a story of violence, duty, loss, transformation and ultimately death. A Hero With a Violent Beginning Yamato Takeru does not begin his legendary career as a conventional heroic figure. In the Kojiki, the young prince is sent to deal with his elder brother after his father becomes angry about the brother’s failure to attend meals. Takeru interprets the command with extreme violence, killing his brother. His father then becomes concerned about the dangerous nature of his son and begins sending him on military missions far from the court. His first major campaign takes him toward the western regions, where he is ordered to subdue the Kumaso leaders. Instead of defeating them through a straightforward battle, Takeru disguises himself as a young woman and attends a feast held by the two brothers who lead the Kumaso. When the opportunity arises, he attacks them, killing one and mortally wounding the other. The surviving leader recognizes the prince’s ability and gives him the name by which he becomes famous: Yamato Takeru. The episode establishes one of the central characteristics of the legend. His victories are extraordinary, but they are frequently achieved through deception and ruthless violence rather than through the straightforward courage associated with later ideas of heroism. The Eastern Campaign After returning from the west, Yamato Takeru is sent out again. His next mission takes him toward eastern Japan, where the chronicles describe numerous peoples and local powers who have not accepted the authority of the Yamato court. Once again, the prince succeeds through a combination of military ability and deception. The campaigns are presented as part of the wider expansion of Yamato authority. However, historians cannot simply treat the chronicles as a literal military record. The Kojiki and Nihon Shoki were compiled centuries after the period traditionally associated with Yamato Takeru, and modern scholarship generally regards him as a semi-legendary figure. Some interpretations suggest that his story may preserve memories of several different individuals or military traditions that were eventually combined into a single heroic character. That uncertainty is part of what makes the legend significant. Yamato Takeru became a literary and religious representation of the expansion of the Yamato court, regardless of how closely the individual episodes correspond to historical events. The Sword That Became Kusanagi One of the most famous episodes in the story occurs during Yamato Takeru’s eastern journey. Before continuing his campaign, he receives the sacred sword later known as Kusanagi from his aunt, Yamato-hime, at Ise. The sword is already surrounded by mythology, having been associated with the storm deity Susanoo and the slaying of the eight-headed serpent Yamata no Orochi. In the eastern campaign, local enemies lure Yamato Takeru into a grass-covered area and set fire to it, apparently intending to trap him. According to the legend, the sword allows him to cut down the surrounding vegetation and escape the flames. The story connects this episode with the sword’s name, Kusanagi, commonly understood as “grass-cutting.” The Kusanagi tradition later became closely associated with Atsuta Shrine in present-day Nagoya. The shrine’s religious tradition identifies the sword as one of Japan’s Three Sacred Treasures, and Yamato Takeru is among the figures connected with Atsuta’s founding legend. The sword itself is not publicly displayed, adding another layer to its enduring mystery. From Warrior to Tragic Hero The character of Yamato Takeru changes dramatically as the story progresses. During his early campaigns, he appears almost entirely defined by violence and obedience to his father’s commands. Later, however, the consequences of his missions begin to weigh upon him. One of the most important episodes concerns his wife, Princess Ototachibana. During a sea crossing, violent waves prevent the expedition from continuing. According to the legend, Ototachibana sacrifices herself by entering the sea, allowing Yamato Takeru to complete his mission. Her death profoundly affects him, revealing an emotional vulnerability that is largely absent from the earlier episodes. This is a major turning point in the legend. The warrior who once seemed almost unstoppable becomes increasingly aware of mortality, personal loss and the cost of the missions imposed upon him. His victories no longer appear entirely triumphant. The Final Battle Is Against the Gods Near the end of his journey, Yamato Takeru encounters the deity of Mount Ibuki. He approaches the mountain without the Kusanagi sword, which he has left behind. The encounter proves disastrous. After confronting the supernatural power of the mountain, he becomes seriously ill and begins the journey home in a weakened condition. The transformation is striking. Earlier in the story, Yamato Takeru defeats human enemies through strength, cunning and deception. His final opponent cannot be overcome in the same way. The prince’s power reaches its limit when he confronts the divine world. He eventually dies at Nobono, traditionally associated with an area of present-day Mie Prefecture. According to the legend, after his death his spirit takes the form of a white bird. The bird flies away, leaving behind the physical remains of the warrior. The image gives the story a final transformation: Yamato Takeru, who began as a violent

The Birth of Japan: Prince Shotoku and the Making of a Nation The story of Japan’s emergence as a more organised and centralised state reaches back more than 1,400 years, to a period when political power was divided among powerful clans and the Yamato court was developing new ideas about government. One of the most important figures associated with this transformation was Prince Shotoku, a member of the imperial family who became closely connected with political reform, Buddhism and Japan’s relations with the wider Asian world. Shotoku lived during the Asuka period, when Japan was absorbing ideas, technologies and religious traditions from the Korean Peninsula and China. His career has subsequently become surrounded by legends, making it difficult to separate the historical figure from the image that developed after his death. Nevertheless, historical sources identify him as an important political figure during the reign of Empress Suiko and associate him with efforts to strengthen the authority and organisation of the Yamato state. A Country Still Organised Around Powerful Clans Japan in Shotoku’s lifetime was very different from the centralised country that would eventually emerge. The Yamato court exercised growing influence, but powerful clans remained essential to political authority. Leadership, land and social status were closely connected to hereditary groups, creating a political system in which the ruler had to work alongside influential families. The court was nevertheless undergoing significant change. Japan’s rulers were increasingly looking towards the more developed political systems of continental East Asia. Chinese models of government, Confucian political thought, writing and Buddhism all offered ideas that could be adapted to the needs of the Japanese state. Shotoku became associated with this transformation. Japan Search describes him as a regent during the reign of Empress Suiko and credits him with helping establish the Twelve-Level Cap and Rank System, promoting the Seventeen-Article Constitution and strengthening relations with the Sui dynasty in China. Shotoku and Empress Suiko Shotoku is traditionally identified as the nephew of Empress Suiko, who ruled Japan from 592 to 628. He served as regent and adviser during her reign, placing him close to the centre of government at a time when the Yamato court was attempting to strengthen its political institutions. His position also placed him at the intersection of several major changes. Buddhism was becoming increasingly important at court, relations with the Asian mainland were expanding, and the government was experimenting with new ways of organising officials and administering the country. The period was not simply a straightforward move towards a modern state. Political authority remained contested, and powerful families continued to play major roles. The reforms associated with Shotoku were part of a much longer process in which successive rulers gradually expanded the institutions of the Japanese state. The Twelve-Level Cap and Rank System One of the reforms traditionally associated with Shotoku was the Twelve-Level Cap and Rank System, introduced in 604. The system created a hierarchy of official ranks and was intended to distinguish government officials according to their positions and responsibilities. The system was significant because it provided a framework for recognising official status that was not based entirely on hereditary clan position. Although the influence of powerful families did not disappear, the development of formal ranks represented an important step towards a more structured administration. Later governments expanded and altered the ranking system. It therefore became part of a continuing process rather than a finished administrative structure created by one individual. The reforms of the seventh century would eventually produce a much more elaborate bureaucracy. The Seventeen-Article Constitution Perhaps the most famous document associated with Prince Shotoku is the Seventeen-Article Constitution, traditionally dated to 604. Despite its name, the document was not a constitution in the modern sense. It was a set of principles concerning political conduct, social harmony, Buddhism and obedience to the sovereign. The opening article famously places emphasis on harmony and avoiding conflict. Other articles address respect for Buddhist teachings and the authority of the ruler. Columbia University’s Asia for Educators describes the document as an important early attempt to reshape the Japanese government using Confucian and Buddhist approaches to statecraft. The document’s importance lies partly in what it reveals about the political ambitions of the period. The government was seeking greater cooperation among officials and clans while promoting a stronger concept of central authority. It was an early expression of ideas that would become increasingly important as Japan’s political institutions developed. Buddhism Becomes Increasingly Important Buddhism had arrived in Japan through connections with the Korean Peninsula during the sixth century. Its adoption was controversial, with different political groups taking different positions over the new religion. Shotoku became one of its most prominent supporters at the Yamato court. According to Japan Search, Shotoku played a crucial role in the spread of Buddhism and was associated with the construction of temples, including Shitennoji in present-day Osaka. His support helped Buddhism become increasingly established within elite Japanese society. Buddhism also brought Japan into a much wider cultural network. Along with religious teachings came art, architecture, writing and intellectual traditions that had developed across mainland Asia. Temples became important centres of religious and cultural activity, contributing to the transformation of Japanese society. Relations With China Shotoku’s period also saw Japan strengthen its diplomatic relationship with China. Japanese missions were sent to the Sui dynasty, allowing the Yamato court to establish direct contact with one of the most powerful states in East Asia. These missions were important because Japan could observe Chinese systems of government and learn from developments in administration, religion, writing and culture. Japanese rulers did not simply copy the Chinese system, but they increasingly adapted continental ideas to their own political circumstances. This exchange helped accelerate the transformation of the Yamato court. Knowledge and cultural influences arriving from abroad became part of a broader effort to strengthen political institutions and establish Japan as a more organised state. The Political Changes Continued After Shotoku Shotoku died in the early seventh century, but the political transformation associated with his era

When Japan Chose Buddhism The arrival of Buddhism in Japan was far more than the introduction of a new religion. During the sixth and seventh centuries, the Japanese court was deciding how the country should develop and where it belonged within the wider world of East Asia. Buddhism became closely connected with those political and cultural questions, eventually helping transform Japanese government, art, architecture and ideas about society. Buddhism reached Japan through connections with the Korean Peninsula, bringing with it scriptures, images, rituals and intellectual traditions that had already developed across China and Korea. Its arrival created a debate among powerful Japanese clans. Some saw the new religion as a source of knowledge and political prestige, while others feared that adopting foreign religious practices could anger the indigenous kami and undermine established traditions. Buddhism Arrives From the Korean Peninsula The traditional date given for the official introduction of Buddhism to the Japanese court is 538, although another important historical source gives the year as 552. Modern historians generally regard the precise date as uncertain, but there is broad agreement that Buddhism entered Japan through diplomatic contacts with the Korean kingdom of Baekje during the sixth century. The arrival of Buddhist images and scriptures gave the Yamato court access to a religious tradition that was already deeply established elsewhere in Asia. Buddhism also came with artistic techniques, written culture and models of temple construction, linking religious change to a much broader exchange with the continent. For Japanese rulers, this was particularly significant because China was then the dominant cultural and political power in East Asia. Adopting elements of continental civilisation could demonstrate that Japan was participating in the same international cultural world. Buddhism consequently became associated with diplomacy and state-building as well as religious belief. A Religious Dispute Becomes a Political Struggle The introduction of Buddhism did not immediately produce agreement at the Japanese court. Powerful clans took different positions, and the dispute became intertwined with existing rivalries over political influence. The Soga clan became prominent supporters of Buddhism. Other powerful groups, including the Mononobe, resisted its adoption. Opposition was not simply based on theological disagreement. Buddhist worship represented a new set of relationships and ideas that could alter the balance of power at court. The issue became particularly intense during the reigns of Emperor Kinmei and his successors. According to historical accounts, the Soga eventually defeated the Mononobe in 587. The victory removed one of the most important centres of organised resistance to Buddhism and allowed its supporters to promote the religion more openly. Records of the period therefore show Buddhism becoming part of a much larger political transformation. Why Buddhism Was Attractive to the Court Buddhism offered the Japanese ruling elite more than a system of religious beliefs. It provided access to a sophisticated intellectual and cultural tradition that had spread across Asia. Buddhist temples could demonstrate the wealth and authority of their sponsors, while Buddhist rituals were increasingly associated with protecting the state and ensuring peace. The religion also fitted into the court’s growing interest in Chinese political models. Japan was developing a stronger sense of itself as a unified state, and its rulers were looking towards continental examples of administration and government. Becoming a Buddhist country could also help Japan establish itself as a legitimate participant in the Chinese cultural sphere. The adoption of Buddhism was therefore part of a wider decision by sections of the Japanese elite to engage more deeply with continental Asia rather than develop in isolation. Prince Shotoku and the Expansion of Buddhism One of the most important figures associated with the early development of Buddhism in Japan was Prince Shotoku. Serving during the reign of Empress Suiko, Shotoku became an important political figure and supporter of Buddhist institutions. Shotoku’s involvement helped establish Buddhism more firmly within the court. Temples were constructed, Buddhist teachings were promoted and diplomatic links with China were strengthened. The religion was increasingly incorporated into the political and cultural life of the Yamato state. The famous Seventeen-Article Constitution traditionally attributed to Shotoku also reflects the influence of Buddhist and Confucian ideas. Although it was not a constitution in the modern sense, it presented principles concerning harmony, government and political conduct. Buddhism had consequently become part of the intellectual framework through which some Japanese leaders considered the organisation of society. Temples Become Symbols of a Changing Japan As Buddhist influence expanded, temples became some of the most visible symbols of the transformation taking place in Japan. Large religious complexes required skilled craftsmen, architects and artists, many of whom were influenced by techniques and traditions arriving from the Korean Peninsula and China. Horyuji near Nara is one of the most important surviving examples of early Japanese Buddhist architecture. Its buildings preserve elements of the architectural traditions introduced during the Asuka period and demonstrate how quickly continental artistic influences were adapted to Japanese conditions. Buddhist art also transformed the visual culture of the court. Sculptures of Buddhas and bodhisattvas became important objects of devotion and patronage, while temple complexes provided settings for rituals that were very different from older forms of kami worship. Buddhism and Indigenous Japanese Beliefs The adoption of Buddhism did not mean that Japan simply abandoned its existing religious traditions. Belief in kami and local sacred places remained deeply rooted, and over subsequent centuries Buddhism and indigenous Japanese practices became closely intertwined. This relationship eventually produced forms of religious cooperation in which Buddhist temples and kami shrines could exist alongside one another. Rather than creating a permanent division between two completely separate religions, Japanese religious culture developed through centuries of interaction and adaptation. The distinction between Buddhism and Shinto that many people recognise today is therefore partly the result of much later developments. Before the modern period, the two traditions were frequently connected in religious practice. From Court Religion to State Buddhism During the seventh and eighth centuries, Buddhism became increasingly integrated into the institutions of the Japanese state. The government sponsored temples and religious ceremonies, while rulers